Core - Assessment of Learning (I year )

UNIT III 
 EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS AND ACHIEVEMENT TEST

EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS

Meaning

            In general, diagnosis means  a careful study of the condition of learning to determine its nature and find out about the causation, with the main purpose of correcting and remedying the difficulty involved in active remembering.

            According to Tieg (1968), educational diagnosis is the basis of intelligent teaching; its function is to facilitate the optimum development of every student.

Principles

·         It begins with each students’ unique instructional needs that involves raising questions

·         It should be a continuous process

·         It should be directed towards formalizing methods towards remediation

·         The teacher need more skill of diagnosing the causes of difficulty

Importance of Educational diagnosis

Educational diagnosis becomes important as basis for remedial work and also as basis for preventive work.

·         To give remedial work & preventive work

·         As guide to the attainment of the students

·         As guides to difficulties of students

·         In isolating individual difficulties

·         For dividing students into groups for special coaching or remedial teaching

DIAGNOSTIC TEST

            Diagnostic test is used to “diagnose” what a student knows and does not know. Its purpose is to determine the specific learning needs of a student so that those needs can be met through remedial instruction. It can be used to assess student’s previous knowledge before start of instruction. This can be done with the help of a pre-test. On the basis of the previous knowledge of the student, the teacher can plan the classroom instruction. It provides feedback to teachers and students regarding their strengths and weaknesses.

At the level of locating the weaknesses of students, special tests are devised and used which are called diagnostic tests. The diagnostic value of the test is obtained from the total score which is the sum of the part scores on the subjects. Thus it requires a very careful analysis of the content and a detailed study of the common errors made by students. In this test, the questions are mostly of low difficulty level, as the purpose is to locate their weaknesses. There is no time limit for this test. The questions are arranged clustered round learning points, which in turn are sequenced from simple to complex.

Purpose

·         To improve upon the teaching-learning process for different school subjects

·         To identify backward students in any subject, find out their specific weaknesses and recommend remedial measures for eradicating those weakness

·         To find out the shortcomings in different prevalent methods of teaching and to guide for their improvement

·         To know the learning difficulties of the students

·         Improvement in the content on the basis of the results obtained from diagnostic test.

Functions of diagnostic test

Cookg (1951) suggested the following functions.

(1) To direct curriculum emphasis by:

·         Focusing attention on the important ultimate objectives of education as possible

·         Clarifying educational objectives to teachers and pupils

·         Determining elements of strength and weaknesses in the instructional programme of the school

·         Discovering inadequacies in curriculum, content and organization.

(2) To provide for educational guidance of pupil by:

·         Providing and serving a basis for the preliminary grouping of pupils in each learning area

·         Determining the difficulty of material pupil can read

·         Determining the level of problem solving ability in various areas.

(3) To stimulate the learning activities of pupils by:

·         Enabling pupils to think of their achievements in objective terms

·         Giving pupil’s satisfaction for the progress they make

·         Enabling pupils to compete with their past performance record.

CONSTRUCTION OF A GOOD DIAGNOSTIC TEST

            Diagnostic test may be teacher-made or standardized. The stages of preparation include the following:

1.      Planning – The unit on which a diagnostic test is based requires a detailed, exhaustive content analysis. It is broken into learning points. The procedure is based on the premise that mastery of the total process cannot be stronger than that of the weakest link in the chain of related concepts and skills.

2.      Writing items – All the forms of questions can be used for testing different learning points. They should in general be easy, suitable for average students of that age or grade. The questions should be written in simple language. The scope of the expected answer should be clear to the students.

3.      Assembling the test – No rigid time limit need to be specified, though for administrative purposes a time limit may be set.

4.      Providing directions and preparing scoring key – A set of instructions, clear and precise is drafted. It should also be provided with a scoring key and marking scheme.

5.      Reviewing the test – Before printing the test, it should be carefully edited and reviewed. An analysis of the test listing down learning points with corresponding questions may be prepared for future reference.

Uses of diagnostic test

·         Points out inadequacies in specific skills.

·         Locates areas in which individual instruction is required.

·         Furnishes continuous information in order that learning activities may be most productive of desirable outcomes.

·         Serve as a basis for improving instructional methods, materials and learning procedures.

AREAS AND CONTENT OF DIAGNOSTIC TEST

Following are the important areas that constitute the content of diagnostic testing and remedial teaching:

Intelligence: An intelligence test, carefully used and critically interpreted, constitutes an effective and useful instrument for classroom teaching.

Personality: A persons’ individuality is revealed in his behavior. Personality inventories tests and scales afford evidence of types not realized from intelligence or achievement test which teachers should find valuable in the guidance and adjustment of their students.

Achievement in specific subjects: It is now possible to evaluate achievement and to diagnose difficulties with practical accuracy in various subjects. The subject lends itself well to analysis and identification of specific skills and thus, diagnosis.

General educational achievement: While the emphasis is somewhat more on the measurement of the specific rather than the general aspects of school achievement, there is recognizable need for the measurement of the specific aspects of school achievement. This includes the three areas- intelligence, personality and achievement in specific subjects.

REMEDYING LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

Classification

            It is the process of sorting out students into groups particularly of underachievers and low achievers. The reference point for each student should rightly be his own expected achievement and students have to be classified with regard to their levels of expected achievement. If they have not reached their expected level of performance, they will be the ones who are in need of remediation. However, if they have crossed their level, some enrichment programme may be planned to help them improve their achievement further.

Finding the nature of difficulties

            In this level of diagnosis the specific areas of difficulties have to be identified. Achievement test, unit test can be used for this purpose as they cover as many learning points as possible. The item-wise analysis of such tests helps in locating the weakness of the students. But this type of analysis gives no ideas regarding the causation of these errors which will have to be sought by other means.

Finding the causes of difficulties

            This is the most difficult stage in diagnosis. The main difficulty of this stage lies in the fact that a test appraises only the products of learning has taken place but can seldom reveal anything about the causes of it. These causes are generally varied and complex in nature. The underachievement of the students may be due to factors like environmental factors outside the control of the students or a combination of the two.

Remediation

            After identifying the causes of the difficulties, the next stage is planning and applying remedial measures. There is no set pattern and no strict formulae for remediation. The guiding principles that apply to all subject areas and provide a framework in which the teacher can operate.

Prevention

            Any weakness identified should form the basis for decisions relating to reducing the probability for their recurrence in the future. i.e. it should become a means for improving instruction, modifying curriculum and also for refining instructional materials and strategies.

REMEDIAL STRATEGIES

            A teacher can organize remedial teaching in a school in a following ways. The various forms of remedial teaching are:

·         Class teaching: In this, there is no change in the present structure and form in forma teaching organization. Before teaching, the teacher should know that the students have difficulty of which branch, topic, content and process etc.

·         Group tutorial teaching: In this teaching, the students are divided into group of special characteristics. This division is based on their difficulty levels, similarity of problems and weakness. After this each group are taught by the teacher according to their difficulties.

·         Individual tutorial teaching: In this the teacher pays attention individually to the students to learn the content without difficulties in individual.

·         Supervised tutorial teaching: In this method the teacher removes the defects of traditional methods and he/she acts as a supervisor. Here a student reads an essay and defends it with arguments. This strategy can provide an opportunity to deepen his understanding of subject for able student.

·         Auto-instructional teaching: The student does not receive any supervision or guidance. The teacher gave the programmed learning package to solve the difficulties related to subjects. This is an auto-instructional material. It may be a computer software programme. In this way the student solves his difficulty by self.

·         Informal teaching: Here there is no fixed place, time or curriculum. The subject related knowledge is added into formal education. This includes educational excursions, organization of science club, construction of science models, visiting museums, participation in group discussion and debates etc.

ACHIEVEMENT TEST

            Achievement tests are employed for measuring the amount of success or achievement of individual in a specific field or are of accomplishment. In the school situations an achievement test is used as a tool for measuring the nature and extent of student’s learning in a particular subject or a group of subjects. How far a particular student has been able to learn and acquire or has been benefited from the learning experiences given to him is ascertained with the help of these tests. Thus achievement test is essentially a tool or device of measurement that helps in ascertaining quantity and quality of learning attained in a subject of study or group of subjects after a period of instruction by measuring the present ability of the individual concerned. Some illustrations regarding achievement test are:

·         Improving skills in handling apparatus.

·         Increasing knowledge, such as learning the different parts of an optical instrument.

·         Increasing understanding, such as the prediction of outcomes under a given set of conditions.

Definition

            According to Downie, any test that measures the attainments or accomplishments of an individual after a period of training or learning is called an achievement test.

            Groulund says that, a systematic procedure for determining the amount a student has learned through instructions.

Functions of test

·         It provides basis for promotion to the next grade.

·         To find out where each student stands in various academic areas.

·         T o motivate the students before a new assignment has taken up.

·         To expose pupil’s difficulties which the teacher can help them to solve.

Principles of construction

            The construction of an objective based test can be divided into the following steps:

1.      Planning the test: Initially the objectives should be stated. Then the teacher is ready to proceed with construction of a test to measure achievement of these objectives. This includes

·         weightage to objectives

·         weightage to the area of content

·         weightage to different forms of questions

·         scheme of options and

·         sections given.

2.      Preparing the blueprint: The design of the achievement test is given by means of a three dimensional table of specifications in the form of a blueprint. It is essentially a three-way grid, with the content. It includes

·         objectives to be tested

·         subject matter to be covered

·         the form of questions.

Weightage to Objectives

      The objectives considered to be given weightage to the Knowledge, Understanding, Application and Skill. Maximum weightage was given to understanding and then for knowledge and application.

Objectives	Marks allotted	Percentage
Knowledge	12	24
Understanding	15	30
Application	13	26
Skill	10	20
Total	50	100

Weightage to Content

      The performance of students’ on various content areas is analyzed. Then the total marks obtained by each student are calculated. The reflection on the weak areas can be overcome by the remedial teaching.

Content	Marks allotted	Percentage
Unit I	20	40
Unit II	30	60
Total	50	100

Weightage to Type of questions

Evaluation was done using

1.      Essay-type questions

2.      Short-answer type questions

3.      Objective-type questions

The essay-type tests the pupil’s knowledge and understanding whereas the short-answer type tests the pupil’s understanding and application skills in the unit.

Type of question	Marks allotted	Percentage
Essay type (4x5)	20	40
Short-answer type (10x2)	20	40
Objective type (10x1)	10	20
Total	50	100

BLUE PRINT

Objective of the  content	Knowledge			Understanding			Application			Skill			Total
	E	SA	O	E	SA	O	E	SA	O	E	SA	O
Unit I	-	(2)2	(1)1	5(1)	-	(1)1	-	(2)2	(1)1	-	2(1)	2(2)	20
Unit II	5(1)	2(1)	-	5(1)	2(1)	2(1)	5(1)	2(1)	1(1)	-	2(2)	2(2)	30
Total	12			15			13			10			50

*        Number within the bracket indicates the number of questions.

3.      Designing questions: The next step is to design questions on the basis of the blueprint. It necessitates the following

·         defining the objectives

·         chaining the objectives to specifications

·         complete knowledge of the subject matter

4.      Editing the question paper: This step consists of the following measures –

·         assembling the questions on the basis of their form like Section A,B,C.

·         instructions to the students should be given on each section.

5.      Administering the test: This involves predetermining

·         among other things

·         time of testing

·         place of testing and

·         giving instructions.

6.      Scoring the test: This is essential as it indicates

·         the number of points or steps expected in the answer

·         the outline of each point or step expected in the answer

·         the weightage to each of these points or steps.

7.      Evaluating the test: In evaluating a test, a few key questions need to be asked. If the scores are extremely high, it may be assumed that the test was too easy for the class. If the scores seem very low, the test was probably too difficult.

ADMINISTRATION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST

            Most test of educational achievement is given to groups rather than individuals. In either case, effective administration requires

1.         Motivation of all the examinees to do well

2.         A clear understanding of the test

3.         An environment in which they work allows and encourages their best efforts

4.         An equal chance of each examinee to demonstrate his/her achievement

Points need to be kept in view:

1.The first task of the teacher is to win the confidence of the students and assure them that test is to help them in the improvement of their learning rather than for declaring pass or fail.

2.It should be administered in a relaxed environment. The room selected for exam should be free from noise. The room should be adequately lighted and ventilated.

3.Students should be seated comfortably. The space between two examinees should be atleast 50 cm.

4.Students should be asked not to consult each other while taking the test.

5.If any student is not able to follow something, he should be allowed to seek clarification from the teacher.

6.Time schedule should not be enforced strictly. If any student takes a little more time, he should be allowed to do so.

SCORING & RECORDING OF RESULTS

Some important procedures have to be followed while scoring and recording.

1.         Order of scoring

2.         Recording

3.         Keeping records

Order of scoring

            Depend on the length and type of questions scoring to be done. Preferably all essay type should be scored at a time by the same person so that errors can be avoided. If it happens to be objective type, each page after page should be scored; if more in number separate persons should take up the scoring to avoid errors.

Re-scoring

            It is always better to rescore if the booklets are large in number. If there is difference in scoring of first and second, it will be clear that there is some error; then it can be checked and more accuracy can be established.

Keeping records

            The records in the required format to record scores should be entered as soon as scoring is completed. These records should be safely placed.

INTERPRETATION OF TEST RESULTS

Interpretation by frequency distribution

            Each score in the test is tallied on a scale extending from the highest to the lowest scores. One can tell by visual inspection whether a particular score is high, medium, or low relative to other scores in this distribution.

Interpretation by percentile ranks

            The percentile rank of a particular score indicates what percentage of the scores in the given set is lower than the particular score. Percentile ranks can range from 0 to 100.

Reliability

            A reliability coefficient is a coefficient of correlation between two sets of test scores. In most situations a good achievement test will have a reliability coefficient of 0.9 or higher.

Discriminating power

            The discriminating power of a test item can be measured by the difference between scores on that item for examinees of high and low achievement.

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UNIT IV - STATISTICS AND EVALUATION

FORMING FREQUENCY TABLE

The frequency of a particular data value is the number of times the data value occurs.  The frequency of a data value is often represented by f. Tabulation in its broadest sense is any orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows. A frequency table is constructed by arranging collected data values in ascending order of magnitude with their corresponding frequencies.

"A tabular arrangement of data by class together with the corresponding class frequencies is called a frequency distribution or frequency table" – Murray R. Spiegel

Frequency distribution

            The conventional technique for organizing and arranging the data in a systematic manner is called the frequency distribution. It is simply a table in which the data are grouped into classes and the number of cases which fall in each class is recorded. A frequency distribution shows a tallying of the number of times each score occurs in a group of scores.

MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

            According to R.A. Fisher, ‘The inherent inability of the human mind to grasp in its entirety a large body of numerical data compels us to seek relatively few constants that will adequately describe the data. There are various numerical measures which are meant for describing the inherent themes and characteristics of a mass of data or frequency distribution with a single numerical value. The most commonly used measures are the measures of central tendencies.

Tate defines, ‘it is a short average on typical value of the items in the series and its function is to summarize the series in terms of this average value’.

            After numbers have been arranged in order, often taking the form of a frequency distribution, a natural step is to seek a numerical index that will represent all of them. If our data consists of scores on an educational achievement test for a group of eight graders, we would like to have a single number that will summarize the entire set of scores. Such an index should reveal the general trend of the obtained scores whether on the whole they tend to run high, low or between. The type of index served this purpose is called a measure of central tendency.

There are three averages or measures of central tendency in common use. They are:

·         Arithmetic Mean

·         Median

·         Mode

ARITHMETIC MEAN

            The most commonly used and familiar index of central tendency for a set of raw data or a distribution is the mean. Mean is commonly understood as the average of the group or the Mean is a set of observations or scores obtained by dividing the sum of all the values by the total number of values. The elementary procedure for obtaining a mean is to add all the values and divide the total by the total number of values, N. 

In the words of Ferguson, "Mean is the sum of a set of measurements divided by the number of measurements in the set".

The formula that can be used for ungrouped data is

                        M = SX

                                 N

Mean (X) = Sum of the item

                   Number of items

Where,             M →mean

ΣX → sum of the scores

                        N → total number of cases or scores

For grouped data,

                        M = A + Sfd   x i

                                          N

where M  → actual mean

A → assumed mean

N  → total number of frequencies

Σfd → sum of the product of deviation with frequencies

i  →  size of the class interval

Merits

·         It is easy to understand even by a common man

·         It is easy to calculate

·         It is used in further calculation

·         It is based on the value of every item in the series

·         It provides a good basis for comparison

·         It is the more stable measure of central tendency

Demerits

·         It is unduly affected by the extreme items

·         In certain cases mean may give absurd results.

·         Its value cannot be determined graphically.

MEDIAN

            Median is a point in an array above and below which one half of the scores fall. It is the value of the middle item in a series when items are arranged according to magnitude in ascending / descending order or it is the value of the item which goes to divide the series into two equal parts, one half containing values greater than it and the other half containing values less than it.

According to Lindquest, " median is that point on the scale of scores below which one half of the scores (i.e. 50%) lies and above which one half of the scores (i.e., 50%) lies.

For ungrouped data,

Median =   N+1   th item       

                    2

where N → number of cases/scores

For grouped data,

Median =         N/2 – cf

                  L+                             x i

                             f

where L → exact lower limit of the class interval in the median class

            cf → cumulative frequency which is just below the median class

            f → frequency in the median class

            N → total frequency

            i → size of the class interval

Merits

·         It is simple to understand

·         It is not affected by extreme items

·         It is especially useful in qualitative phenomena like honesty, intelligence, efficiency etc.

·         It can be easily located on graph

Demerits

·         It is not always rigidly defined

·         It is generally not used in further statistical work

·         It ignores the extreme items

MODE

            Mode is defined to be the size of the variable which occurs most frequently. It is derived from the French word ‘La mode’ means fashion. Simply mode is the frequently occurring score in a distribution. The value, which occur maximum number of times, is called one mode or unimodal. It is the point on the score scale that corresponds to the maximum frequency of the distribution. In any series it is the value of the item which is most characteristics or common and is usually repeated maximum number of items.

            In case of some distribution there may be two numbers, which occur many times then it is called bi-modal. If it more than two it is called multi-modal.

The value of variable which occurs most frequently in a distribution is called mode.                                              - Kenney and Keeping

                        Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean

Merits

·         It is simple to understand and to calculate

·         Its value is not affected by the presence of extreme items

·         It can be determined graphically

·         It is useful in such cases where it is desired to find out the most popular value of the series

Demerits

·         It is a measure having very limited practical value

·         It does not lend itself readily to further algebraic manipulations

·         It is not used for further statistical measures

Uses of Measures of Central Tendency

Uses of Mean

·         When the distribution is symmetrical i.e. that is the scores are uniformly distributed.

·         It is often in demand at the time of higher statistical calculations.

·         Since mean has greater stability, when the measure of central tendency with the greatest stability is needed, mean is used.

Use of Median

·         When the exact midpoint of 50% point of the distribution is wanted.

·         It is required when there are extreme scores which would markedly affect the mean.

·         When it is desired that certain scores should influence the central tendency, median is used.

·         It is required when the distribution has an upper or lower class interval.

Uses of Mode

·         It is used when a quick and approximate measure of central tendency is all that is wanted.

·         It is used when the measure of central tendency should be the most typical value.

MEASURES OF VARIABILITY

            A measure of dispersion is designed to state the extent to which the individual items differ from their arithmetic mean.

Books & Dick – Dispersion or spread is the degree of the scatter or variation of variables about a central value.

Methods of studying variation

            The following are the measures of variability and each of these provides a numerical index of the variability of the scores.

        i.            Range

      ii.            Quartile deviation

    iii.            Standard deviation

RANGE

            Range is the interval between the highest and the lowest scores. In other words, it is the spread over or scattering of scores. When we compare two or more groups for variability it is very much useful.

                                                R = L - S

where L → largest value in a series

            S → smallest value in a series

Merits

·         It is simple to calculate and quite easy to understand

·         Its definition is quite clear and rigid

·         To compute range all the value of the series is not needed

Demerits

·         It is not reliable by the extreme values

·         It does not depend upon the intermediate values

·         It is a biased estimate

·         It is a very rough measure

QUARTILE DEVIATION

            Quartile deviation or Q is one half of the scale between the 75^th and 25^th percentiles in a frequency distribution. Q₁ or the 25^th quartile in the first quartile on the scale below which 25% of scores lies i.e. 75^th percentile or Q₃ is the third quartile on the score scale, the point below which lie 75% of the scores.

In simple words Quartile Deviation (Q.D.) is half of the difference between Q₃and Q₁ of a series and hence it is also known as semi – inter quartile range.

"Quartiles are the three points that divide a distribution into four equal parts."

-          Skinner    

When these two Q₁ and Q₃ are available it is easy to calculate the Quartile deviation using the formula

            Q D= Q_{3 -} Q₁

                        2

where

Q₁ =              N/4 – cf

            L+                      x i

                                    f

Q₃ =           3N/4 – cf

            L+                   x i

                                    f

Merits                                                                              

·         It is easy to calculate and interpret

·         It is independent of extreme values

·         It is more representative and reliable than range

Demerits

·         It is not based on all values since it considers only middle 50% of observation

·         It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment

STANDARD DEVIATION

            It is the most reliable and stable index of variability. This concept was introduced by Karl Pearson in 1893. Standard deviation is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the squared deviations of measurement from their mean. It is represented by the letter s.

It is square root of the mean value of all the deviations squared taken from their mean values.

-          Guilford

The formula for ungrouped data,

s =  1 ÖåX² – (åX)²

                               N                             

s = 1 ÖNåfd² – (åfd)²

                               N

For grouped data,

s =  i   ÖNåfd² – (åfd)²

                               N

Merits

·         It is rigidly defined and its value is always definite

·         It is based on all the observations

·         It is the basis for the measuring the coefficient of correlation

·         It provides the unit of measurement for normal distribution

Demerits

·         It is easy to understand, but difficult to calculate

·         It gives more weight to extreme values

·         It is affected by the value of every item in the series

Uses and Limitations of Measures of Variability

Uses of Range

·         It is used when the data are too scattered to justify the measure of variability.

·         It is used when the scores are rigidly defined and comprehensive.

·         It depends upon the number of scores in the distribution, so to calculate the difference between the scores, range is computed.

Limitations

·         It is not suitable for further algebraic treatment.

·         The range of the groups of unequal size cannot be meaningfully compared.

·         It is very sensitive to the size of sample.

Uses of Quartile deviation

·         It is widely used because it is easy to understand and calculate.

·         It is also computed with open end class intervals.

·         It is used in case of unequal class intervals.

·         It is useful in the cases where there are extreme measures in the distribution.

Limitations

·         It ignores above and below 25% of the data.

·         It is not based on all the data.

·         It is not suitable for further calculations

Uses of Standard deviation

·         When coefficient of correlation and other statistics are computed, SD is used.

·         It is the most powerful measure of dispersion.

·         It is the best method and reliable measure for studying individual differences.

Limitations

·         It is difficult to understand.

·         It is a complex method and takes more time to interpret the meaning.

·         It gives greater weight to extreme values.

NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE (NPC)

            The normal probability curve is the ideal symmetrical frequency curve. In it, the measures are concentrated closely around the centre. The curve is also called as bell-shaped figure. It is very useful in psychological and educational measurement.

                        The most important distribution among the theoretical distribution of statistical methods is the Normal Probability Curve. The mathematical use of this curve was first used by astronomer Carl Fredrick Gauss of Germany, so some scholars call it Gaussian curve. Later on Gauss and Laplace developed the concept of this curve and the concept of probability.

                        Normal probability curve is a symmetrical curve with a hump in the middle and which gradually decreases towards ends but meets the base at infinity. A graph is called a normal probability curve or is said to approximate the normal curve, when it shows the same results as many other measurements in human abilities or traits. This average or mean is such a measure in the group of all scores which lies in the centre and all other scores get scattered around it i.e., all other scores are either lower or higher than this. How many are lower, how many are higher and how many are close to the mean determines the shape of the distribution or the curve if the measures are plotted on a graph paper.

Characteristics

The characteristics of the normal probability curve may be summarized as on the following:

·         The shape of normal curve is like that of a bell.

·         All the three central tendencies – mean, median and mode coincide in it, that is, they are equal. Therefore they fall at the same point on the curve.

·         Since the mean, median and mode lie at one point of the curve it is unimodal in nature.

·         The normal curve is perfectly symmetrical by nature. That means the curve inclines towards both sides equally from the centre of the curve.

·         It is equally divided into two parts by the perpendicular drawn from the highest point.

·         The curve is asymptotic to the base line. It means that it continues to approach but never reaches the base line.

·         Most of the cases fall between +3s to – 3s standard deviation.

·         Various measures in respect of normal curve: In a normal curve, Skewness  = 0, Kurtosis = 0.263

·         It is a curve with Skewness equal to zero i.e.,

SK = ^{3(M – Md)}  = 0

            SD

·         The maximum height of the curve is 0.3989 of the total frequencies within the curve.

·         The point of fluctuation lies in between +1s to -1s. The curve changes from convex to concave at these points with the baseline.

APPLICATIONS OF NPC

·         To calculate the percentile rank scores in a normal distribution.

·         To normalize a frequency distribution, an important process in standardizing a psychological test inventory.

·         To determine the percentage of cases within the given limits or scores.

·         To know how many students fall below and above the average performance.

·         It gives the limits of the scores.

·         To compare two different distributions

·         To find out the difficulty of test items.

·         To find out the number of cases between Mean and one Standard Deviation

·         To divide a group according to same ability and assigning same grades.

CORRELATION

            The correlation is the study of relationship of one variable to another. The term ‘correlation’ indicates the relationship between two such variables in which with changes in the values of one variable the values of the other variable also change.

            Correlation is the extent to which changes in one variable are accompanied by or are dependent upon changes in a second variable.

                                                                                                                        - A.M. Tuttle

Importance of Correlation

            We measure the correlation between different variables for the following reasons:

·         To find out the cause and effect relationship.

·         To determine whether a relationship does not exist or not.

·         To test whether it is significant.

·         To find out the direction of relationship.

·         To derive and analyse the usefulness of data.

Types of Correlation

            Correlation can be either positive or negative.

Positive correlation

            When the values of two variables move in the same direction so that an increase in the value of one variable is associated with an increase in the value of the other variable also, and decrease in the value of one variable is associated with the decrease in the value of other variable too, the correlation is said to be positive.

Increase in one variable ® Increase in the other variable

Decrease in one variable  ® Decrease in the other variable

Ex. Increase in demand ® Increase in production

Negative correlation

            The values of two variables move in different directions, so that with an increase in the value of one variable, the value of the other variable decreases, and with a decrease in the value of one variable, the value of the other increases, correlation is said to be negative.

Increase in one variable ® Decrease in the other variable

Decrease in one variable  ® Increase in the other variable

Ex. Increase in price ® Decrease in demand

Zero Correlation

            When there is no relationship exists between two variables then the correlation is said to be ‘Zero Correlation’.

Interpretation Table

S.No.	Degree of Correlation	Type of Correlation
1	± .00 to ± .20	Negligible
2	± .21 to ± .40	Low
3	± .41 to ± .70	Moderate
4	± .71 to ± .90	High
5	± .91 to ± .99	Very high
6	± 1.00	Perfect

SPEARMAN RANK CORRELATION

            In 1904, Charles Edward Spearman, a British psychologist found out the method of ascertaining the coefficient of correlation by ranks. The linear relationship or the correlation between different ranks or grades of two characteristic is called rank correlation. This method is also known as "Ranking Method" and is considered more appropriate in finding out correlation between those qualitative facts which cannot be measured quantitatively but can be placed in an order such as honesty, beauty, intelligence etc. 

The formula for computing the rank correlation is

            r =    1- 6SD²

                    N (N² – 1)

where  D → difference in ranks

            N → number of measures in the series

            r → coefficient of correlation

Merits

·         It is useful in the case of data which are of qualitative nature like honesty, beauty, social adjustment etc.

·         It is simple to understand and easy to calculate

·         No other method except this can be used when the ranks are given

Demerits

·         It cannot be used for finding out correlation in a grouped frequency distribution

·         If the number of items is large the calculation becomes tedious and time consuming

KARL PEARSON PRODUCT MOMENT CORRELATION

            Karl Pearson, a great biometrician and statistician, suggested a mathematical method for measuring the magnitude of linear relationship between two variables. The Product Moment Correlation is a ratio which expresses the extent to which changes in one variable are accompanied by or are dependent upon changes in second variable. In other words, when corresponding deviations in x and y are multiplied together, summed and divided by N the term ‘product moment’ is used.

The formula to calculate the Product Moment Correlation is

            r   =                  NSXY – (SX) (SY)

                        ÖNSX² – (SX)²   ÖNSY² – (SY)²                   

where  SX→ sum of the scores of X variable

            SY→ sum of the scores of Y variable

            SX² → sum of squared X scores

            SY² → sum of squared Y scores

            SXY → sum of the product of paired X and Y scores

            N → number of paired scores

Uses

·         It is most popularly and widely used in research and measurement.

·         It is very useful for prediction in guidance services.

·         The theories of intelligence have been developed by using ‘r’.

·         It is easy to understand and interpret.

·         This method is applicable for small as well as large samples.

·         It is used in behavioural sciences.

Merits

·         It is the most popular mathematical method used for measuring the degree of relationship

·         The coefficient of correlation summarizes the degree  of correlation and its direction

Demerits

·         The assumption of linear relationship between variables is not affected whether it is correct or not

·         The coefficient of correlation is time consuming

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF DATA

            After placing the frequency distribution into tabular form the next stage is presenting it graphically. Graphs are visual and figurative illustrations of statistical data. Graphic presentation of statistical data gives a pictorial effect. It enables us to present data in simple, clear and effective manner.

            The wondering of a line is more powerful in its effect on the mind than a tabulated statement: it shows what is happening and what is likely to take place just as quickly as the eye is capable of working.

-          Boddington

            A graph is plotted by taking two lines or coordinates axes – the one vertical or Y axis and the other horizontal or X axis. These basic lines are perpendicular to each other; the point where they intersect is called ‘O’ or the origin.     

                                                      

                                                                                    

               One of the most convincing and appealing ways in which statistics may be presented is through diagrams and graphs. In representing frequency distribution, diagrams are not used, but graphs are used. Frequency distributions are converted into visual models to facilitate understanding. It is easier, more convenient and quicker to draw inferences from graphs than from frequency distributions.

Graphic methods of representing frequency distribution

            There are four common graphic methods of representing frequency distribution. These are:

·         Frequency polygon

·         Histogram

·         Cumulative frequency graph and

·         Cumulative percentage curve or ogive

HISTOGRAM

            Histogram is the most important and useful method of presenting frequency distribution of data of continuous series. A histogram is essentially a bar graph of a distribution. In this magnitude of the class interval is plotted along the horizontal axis (X) and the frequencies on the vertical axis (Y). Each class has lower and upper values. This process gives rectangles. Thus, histogram is a series of vertical bars drawn to the frequencies on class intervals with a common boundary line between two adjacent frequency bars.

Steps for construction

1.      Draw two straight lines perpendicular to each other.

2.      Name the point of intersection as O.

3.      Name the horizontal line as OX and the vertical line as OY.

4.      Arrange the scores on X axis from left to right beginning from the lowest score.

5.      Arrange the frequency on Y axis from the bottom to the top beginning from the lowest frequency.

6.      To represent scores with respect to their frequencies draw rectangles.

Uses

·         When data are given in the form of frequencies, they are displayed by histogram

·         When class interval has to display by a diagram, frequency histogram is used.

·         When frequency distribution has to be analyzed at a glance, frequency is used

Limitations

·         It can be prepared only by frequency distribution of continuous variables

·         It cannot be used to make high statistical analysis.

FREQUENCY POLYGON

            A polygon is defined as many sided closed figure. When a many sided figure is drawn on the basis of frequencies given in a frequency distribution, the figure is called a frequency polygon. Since a polygon is a closed figure, its ends should touch the baseline. For this purpose, at each end of the distribution, assume one additional class interval with zero frequency.

The steps involved in constructing the frequency polygon are:

·         Labeling the points on the base line.

·         Plotting midpoints

·         Drawing in frequency polygon

·         Dimensions of frequency polygon

·         Area of the polygon

Before plotting the graph the following table should be taken into consideration where the scores of a 50 group are shown.

Class interval	Mid point	F
195-200	197	1
190-195	192	2
185-190	187	4
180-185	182	5
175-180	177	8
170-175	172	10
165-170	167	6
160-165	162	4
155-160	157	4
150-155	152	2
145-150	147	3
140-145	142	1
		N = 50

From the table it is observed that the midpoints are considered for plotting the graph on X anis and frequencies on the Y axis.

Labeling the points on the baseline

      For getting an accurate and clear graph it will be preferable to take one score below the lowest point and one score above the highest point. The distribution in the table begins at 140 and ends with 200.

Plotting midpoint

      Frequencies on each interval are plotted above the midpoint of the intervals on the X axis. There is one ‘1’ score on the first interval 140-145. To represent this frequency go to 142, midpoint of the interval, and put a dot at a distance of 1 unit upon the Y axis above this midpoint. Similarly, the remaining ones are represented.

Drawing in the frequency polygon

      When all the points are located in the diagram, they are joined by a series of short lines to form this frequency polygon. For completing the figure the lines should touch the baseline at two ends.

Dimensions of the frequency polygon

      In order to give symmetry and balance to the polygon, care must be exercised in the selection of unit distances to represent the intervals on the X axis and the frequencies on the Y axis.

Area of a polygon

      The total frequency (N) of a distribution is represented by the area of its polygon i.e. the area bounded by the frequency surface and the X axis.

There are two methods of drawing a frequency polygon:

·         Draw the histogram and then join by straight lines the midpoints of the upper horizontal side of each rectangle with adjacent ones. Close both the ends of the polygon by extending them to the midpoints of the additional class intervals with zero frequency. The figure thus obtained is called a frequency polygon.

·         A frequency polygon can also be constructed by taking the midpoints of the class intervals along the X axis and the corresponding frequencies along the Y axis. Plot the pair of points and join them by means of straight lines.

Uses

·         When frequency distribution of two or more groups has to be displayed in one diagram, frequency polygon is used.

·         When two or more groups are to be compared, frequency polygon is used.

·         When modality, kurtosis or skewness of data has to be analyzed, frequency polygon is used.

Limitations

·         It can be prepared for continuous data; it cannot be used to display open class frequency distribution.

·         It cannot be used for numerical comparison and analysis; it can only be used for estimate results

Frequency Curve

            A smoothened frequency curve can be drawn through the various points of the frequency polygon. The curve is drawn freehand in such a manner that the area included under the curve is approximately same as that of the polygon. The object of drawing a smoothened frequency curve is to eliminate all accidental variables that might be present in the data. The curve should look as regular as possible and all sudden overturns may be avoided. The curve should begin and end at the baseline as a general rule.

OGIVE CURVE

            There are occasions when cumulative frequencies become more meaningful and convenient, when converted into cumulative percentages. This process makes a comparison of two or more distributions possible, when N differs.

            The procedure of drawing an ogive is similar to that of a cumulative frequency curve except in one respect. In the former, we use cumulative percentages instead of cumulative frequencies.

Less than Cumulative Frequency Curve

            In this section, the frequencies falls below various score points on the measuring scale. The cumulative frequency corresponding to any class interval is the number of cases within that interval plus all the cases in intervals lower to it on the scale. To construct less than cumulative frequency curve, take the actual upper limits along the X axis and cumulative frequencies along the Y axis.

            It may be noted that the general trend of the cumulative frequency curve is progressively rising. The upward rise is not a straight line. By extrapolation we can find out the number of scores less than any given score.

Greater than Cumulative Frequency Curve

            To draw the greater than cumulative frequency curve, take actual lower limits along the X axis and greater than cumulative frequencies along the Y axis. Plot the points and join them. It is a decreasing curve.

To calculate % of CF =   CF x 100/N

                                             

UNIT V

EXAMINATION REFORMS

EXAMINATION REFORMING EFFORTS

KOTHARI COMMISSION (1964-66)

Evaluation

Evaluation is a continuous process, forms an integral part of the total system of education and is intimately related to educational objectives.  It exercises a great influence on the pupil’s study habits and the teacher’s methods of instruction and thus helps not only to measure educational achievement, but also to improve it.

At Lower Primary Stage: Evaluation at this stage should help pupils to improve their achievement in the basic skills and develop right habits and attitudes. It should be desirable to treat classes I to IV. 

At Higher Primary Stage: In addition to written examinations, weightage should be given at this stage to oral tests as a part of internal assessment. 

External Examination at the end of the Primary Stage: For the proper maintenance of standards, periodic surveys of the level of achievement of primary schools should be conducted by district school authorities through the tests prepared by State Evaluation Organization.

·         The certificate at the end of the primary course should be given by the school.

·         In addition to the common examinations, special tests may be held at the end of the primary course, for the award of scholarships or certificates of merit.

Improvement in External Examinations: It should be improved by raising the technical competence of paper setters, orienting question papers to objectives, improving the nature of questions, adopting scientific scoring procedures, and mechanizing the scoring of scripts and the processing of results.

Certificate given by the Board and School: The certificate issued by the State Board of School Education on the basis of the results of the external examination should give the candidate’s performance in different subjects for which he has appeared.

Establishment of Experimental Schools: A few selected schools should be given the right to frame their own curricula, prescribe their own textbooks, and conduct their educational activities without external restrictions.

Methods of Internal Assessment: Internal assessment by schools should be comprehensive and evaluate all aspects of student growth including those not measured by the external examination. 

Higher Secondary Examination: During the transition period, higher secondary students will have to appear for two successive external examinations – at the end of classes X and XI, within one year.

NATIONAL POLICY OF EDUCATION (1986)

            According to NPE the examination system should be reconstructed so as to ensure a method of assessment that is a valid and reliable measure of student development and a powerful instrument for improving teaching and learning. In functional terms, this would mean:

·         Elimination of excessive element of chance and subjectivity.

·         De-emphasis of memorization.

·         Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation that incorporates both scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education, spread over the total span of instructional time.

·         Effective use of the evaluation process by teachers, students and parents.

·         Improvement in the conduct of examinations.

·         The introduction of concomitant changes in instructional materials and methodology.

·         Introduction of semester system from the secondary stage in a phased manner and

·         The use of grades in place of marks.

NATIONAL CURRICULUM FRAMEWORK (2005)

            The purpose of evaluation is

·         To measure the progress that both learner and teacher have made towards achieving the learning aims that have been set.

·         To give feedback on how the TLP and learning materials need to be improved.

·         To help the teacher to think about each individual child and review what she/he has learnt during the term, and in which areas she needs more support, revision, and improvement.

·         To measure the child’s development in different areas like attitude towards learning, interest, ability to learn independently, cooperation with peers, social and emotional development, etc.

Assessment in Pre-primary and Primary Stages:

·         There should be no formal periodic tests, no awarding of grades or marks, and no detention.

·         It must be purely qualitative judgments made by the teacher, based on observations through everyday interactions.

·         From Class III to Class VI, there could be short tests from time to time.

·         A variety of methods may be used, including oral tests, written tests and observations.

·         Children's own self-evaluation can also be a part of the report card from Class V onwards.

·         Term-wise examinations could be commenced from Class VII onwards.

Assessment in Secondary and Higher Secondary Stages

It may be based more on tests, examinations and project reports for the knowledge-based areas of the curriculum, along with self-assessment. Other areas would be evaluated through observations and self evaluation.

COMPREHENSIVE AND CONTINUOUS EVALUATION (CCE)

            The word ‘comprehensive’ means that it covers different scholastic and co-scholastic facets of the personality comprehensively. The next term ‘continuous’ connotes that the assessments made, built into the total teaching-learning programme, as an integral part, including observation of student behavior in different solutions the periodical tests and examination rituals. The third term ‘evaluation’ implies that the main purpose of the total endeavour is to improve the competencies and the level of performance of the students rather than simply assessing and certifying them.

            CCE provides opportunities for teachers to make suitable changes in their efforts. Through continuous evaluation, it is possible to regularly obtain valuable data about the strengths and weaknesses of the students. This is helpful in providing remedial and enriched instruction with a view to realizing the learning outcomes and correlating through this monitoring with the aims of education.

Salient features of CCE

Regular: CCE is held at regular intervals. This reduces unnecessary burden on the student and makes space for better concept clarity and application of learning.

Focus on holistic development: It covers all aspects of the student’s scholastic and non-scholastic development. In addition to that it also emphasizes on the development of health, interests and character, development of ability to solve problem, make choices for decision making, communicate and relate with people.

Uses a variety of tools and techniques: It aims to make an unbiased and accurate judgement of a student’s progress for which teachers need to collect evidence from various sources.

Involvement of Stakeholders: Considering that there is a tremendous value and need for support to student learning outside the classrooms; peers, teachers, parents and other staff are involved and communication and orientation is provided for them.

Continuous process: Diagnosis of learning gaps, feedback, use of corrective measures, re-testing of student learning some aspects which are continuous.

Comprehensive learning: Record of personality and attitude of the student is also maintained in order to help him/her to develop positive attitudes and values.

Key concepts in CCE

Integration – Consider evaluation as an integral part of the teaching learning process and not merely at the end of the course activity.

Continuity – Undertake as frequently as possible, assessment of students’ learning to remain in constant touch with development and growth of students.

Comprehensiveness – Include both scholastic areas for assessment of total development of the students, using testing and non-testing techniques of evaluation.

Co-operation – Involves other teachers, students, peers, observers and even community members in assessment and judgement making for more dependable evidence.

Criterion-referenced – Seek evidence in terms of predetermined objectives or criterion for learning.

Diagnosis – Analyze all evidence gathered about students to identify inadequacies in student learning to provide basis for remedial measures.

Feedback – Use test results and other evidence for reinforcement and improvement of student learning as well as instructional strategies.

Procedure of evaluation

            Procedures in regard to evaluation in schools necessarily involve:

·         Continuous observation

·         Periodical assessments

·         Arriving at an index of performance twice in a session for making entries in the certificate

CONTINUOUS  INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Meaning

            Ebel (1979) has rightly stated that to make the best possible use of educational facilities and student talent, it is essential that their educational progress be watched carefully and reported as accurately as possible. This all leads to the idea of ‘continuous internal evaluation’. It is ‘continuous’ because it goes on throughout the entire period of instruction, it is ‘internal’ because no external agency is involved in the process of evaluation, which is carried out only by the teachers who are involved in the process, it is ‘evaluation’ because it supplements the external terminal examination.

            Thus CIA is an ongoing process of gathering such information about pupils by their teachers throughout the course of instruction, as could provide feedback for improving the efficiency of learning, and for making long-term decisions about the pupils.

Objectives

·         To make an overall assessment of child’s personality.

·         To motivate students and teachers to make TLP effective.

·         To provide opportunities to teachers to make suitable changes in their plans.

·         To provide feedback to teachers, students and parents as well.

·         To lay less emphasis on memorization and rote learning.

·         To make the evaluation system more meaningful, reliable, valid and objective.

Characteristics

·         It involves both ongoing observation and periodic testing of students by teachers who teach them.

·         It serves both formative and summative purposes.

·         It acts as a supplementary of final examination.

·         It is a process of management of instruction.

·         It  incorporates both cognitive and non-cognitive aspects of child’s personality.

Limitations

·         The system requires a reasonable teacher-taught ratio in the class.

·         The system requires honest, dedicated and responsible staff.

·         It is more laborious and time consuming.

·         The system requires a healthy atmosphere in the institution.

SEMESTER SYSTEM

Meaning

            In semester system, examination becomes a part and parcel of the daily routine and the system no more produces any sort of stress and strain among the students. Each semester has a specified number of working days which helps in better budgeting of available time and resources.

A period of term of six months, especially in German Universities and some US Colleges, the college half year.

-          Oxford English Dictionary

Need and importance

·         It is easy for the students to revise the entire syllabus in limited period.

·         It lays less emphasis on rote learning and cramming.

·         It arranges new instructional approaches in TLP.

·         To keep the students alert throughout the period of their studies

·         To carry out the teaching work more regularly and comprehensively.

Merits

·         Study work goes on continuously even in summer vacations.

·         Student is required to complete limited course in one semester.

·         Helps the students to achieve their objectives in a better way.

·         There is flexibility to choose the number of courses in each semester.

·         Helps in making the entire TLP broader based.

Limitations

·         Hectic examination activities simply contribute to pass the examination.

·         This system suits only to higher education.

·         It is a difficult task to frame proper syllabus of each semester.

TRIMESTER

A trimester system is a set of three semesters per academic year, usually a 10 to 13 week period each semester, requiring summer classes and less break time. The trimester system generally allows students more flexibility in scheduling classes. It offers the average student about twelve open slots for classes in a year, compared to ten in the semester system.

The rationale for introducing the trimester system is to create a school where teaching and learning is valued with an emphasis on learning outcomes demonstrated in students’ performance. A well-designed curriculum through thinner books along with creative instructional practices will form the key to success.

Features

·         It will enable more time for each class with fewer periods of instruction per day and gives more scope for interactive and collaborative learning experiences.

·         Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation System will be an integral part of the trimester system.

·         Teaching and learning is valued with an emphasis on learning outcomes.

·         Large time and the smallness of the term books motivate students to work together in a sportive and friendly manner.

·         The teachers, for their part, need not rush to cover lessons.

·         The trimester pattern would reduce the “physical strain” on students.

Advantages

·         It gives professors and students an opportunity to enhance their learning and knowledge in their chosen field.

·         It includes flexibility, diversity of available classes and the structure of year-long classes.

·         It helps the students have fewer classes to prepare for on a daily basis.

Drawbacks

The main disadvantages of the trimester and quarter schedules are course load, academic pressure, and start and end times.

QUESTION BANK

            Question banks, as the name suggests, are the banks or treasures from where we can have a number of questions set on each subject for the evaluation of our students. These banks provide valuable assistance to the teachers and paper setters in terms of the supply of well framed and standardized set of questions for various class levels and learning areas.

The examining body or central authority appoints a board of experts to prepare a question bank. This board functions throughout the year and replaces the team of paper setters. It examines the syllabus and objectives of teaching a subject matter, and in this light decides the number, nature and type of questions. The prescribed syllabus is divided into a number of units.

           

            The board examines all the questions received from the teachers, improves and incorporates them in the question paper. While preparing a question paper for a school, the teacher usually draws randomly one question from each unit. This set of questions will constitute a fair and representative question paper. Thus any number of question papers can be drawn from the same question bank.

Purpose

·         It may help in diagnostic task.

·         It may help the teacher at the introductory, developing and final stages of his lesson.

·         Drill work and home assignment can be properly given with the help of these questions.

·         It helps to meet the need of the individual differences can be successfully met with the variety of questions available with varying difficulty levels.

·         It can help in the development of the instructional programme, curriculum and instructional strategies.

·         It can help in proper scoring and interpretation of the student responses.

·         It can help in providing proper instructions to the examiners and examinees.

Its preparation

·         A large number of questions should be prepared on each topic or unit of the syllabus.

·         Different experts should be assigned for different topics in order of their preferences.

·         To select items finally after item analysis, experts should be asked to construct items three times more than the actual items to be selected.

·         It should be stored in a computer disk so that one may make use of these questions at his own convenience.

·         Making question bank should be a regular process in the sense that varieties of good questions are regularly constructed by experts and added to the bank.

Merits

·         There is a least chance of leakage of question paper.

·         The teachers and students get aware what type of questions is to be asked in the examination.

·         Question papers can be set immediately.

·         It helps a lot in facilitating learning from various angles.

·         It helps as a guide for paper setters.

·         It improves overall validity of examination.

Limitations

·         Educators are not of uniform opinion in regard of secrecy of question bank.

·         Originality lacks in the construction of questions for question papers.

·         It requires special training on the part of item writers.

·         It requires proficiency in the techniques of test construction on the part of item writer.

ONLINE EXAMINATION

            Online examination is conducting a test online to measure the knowledge of the participants on a given topic. In the olden days everybody had to gather in a classroom at the same time to take an exam. With online examination students can do the exam online, in their own time and with their own device, regardless where they live. We need a browser and internet connection.

How online examination system works

            The teacher creates an account with an exam builder. In such an exam system we can create questions and add them to the exam. We can choose between multiple choice questions or free text questions. The students are provided with a link to the online exam; they sign up and can take the exam. They see the results immediately afterwards.

Examination Instructions

            The instructions will show the basic contents of the examination. Usually the following elements such as total questions, full score, passing rate, passing score, time limit, etc. are included in the instructions page.

Accessibility of Examination Content

            Preset accounts and passwords can be set to protect the contents. And participants can register themselves online. 

Valid Time of Examination Content

            The participants can log in the examination system with their accounts and passwords to access the relevant page to complete the testing in the valid time. The examination will be unavailable when the valid time expires.

Time Reminder for the Examination

            The time reminder will tell the participants how much time left during their examination. When it comes to the end of the testing, some alter audio will remind you of submitting your examination paper.

Ways of submission

            Two ways to submit answers to the reporting system:

·         Submit one question at a time.

·         Submit all at once.

Release of result

            Immediate release or timed release can be set to the examination.

Importance

Fast Process: Results of an online exam can be declared within a few days of the exam.

Remote Access: It can be accessed anywhere in the world.

High Accuracy: As the results of online exams are checked by a machine, the accuracy level is high.

Resources: Though an online exam needs more resources than a traditional exam, but these resources are reusable.

Administration

·         Create the examination, and keep the contents secure until the examination starts. 

·         Supervising and conducting the examination.

·         Only registered students are able to access a test. 

·         The test can be made available on specific dates and times.

·         The login time and log off per student is available. 

·         The system should be synchronized with the server time and should be capable of disable answer sheet automatically after time out.

Advantages

·         Online tests can be more accessible to students with disabilities.

·         It is suitable remote candidates.

·         Automatic evaluation helps to know the result at once.

·         Cost of Examination is less.

Disadvantages

·         Cheating on an online test is as simple as opening up another window and searching Google or asking a classmate for the correct answers.

·         Technical difficulties may arise.

·         Some students will not be accustomed to taking quizzes and tests online.

·         All skill of an individual

OPEN BOOK EXAMINATION

            Independent learning is imperative for sustaining the ‘shelf life’ of a degree. To continue to be viable, individuals need to develop process skills; chiefly, the ability to think and function autonomously. Learners spend so much time memorizing the formulas and forget how they are supposed to work or what they mean. With open book exams, learners can concentrate on the concepts. Such an open book examination may encourage sound preparation by the students, may test the worth of course content, may present a natural situation and may necessitate thought provoking questions. These questions will require ability to see the situation as a whole, ability to use facts in solving problems, ability to draw inferences from known to unknown situations and ability to achieve broader and more permanent objectives of instruction.

            OBEs maximize deployment of effort by reducing memorization of information which in real life situations is easily accessible, thereby freeing time and energy for higher order cognitive tasks. Open book tests can be constructed and used in all the traditional test forms – essay, objective etc. It allows students to take notes, texts or resource materials into an exam situation. It tests the students’ ability to find and apply information and knowledge.

Objectives

·         To discourage lower order skills of recall and replication.

·         To test real understanding and mastery requiring demonstration of higher order cognitive skills.

·         To test the ability to apply the concepts.

Two forms

·         Traditional sit-down / limited-time exams, with varying degrees of access to resources and references.

·         Take home exams–open book exams to do at home. Question(s) are handed out, answers are attempted without help from others, and the exam is returned within a specified period of time.

Administration of OBE

·         Study hard for the exam.

·         Bring as much material as the teacher or professor will allow.

·         Decide on the order in which we are going to answer the questions.

·         Allot a realistic amount of time to answer each question.

·         Scan through materials for anything that might be relevant to the question.

·         Use sticky note or tabs to mark place where we find useful information.

·         Make an outline for the answer based both on the knowledge and on the information we found.

Advantages

·         It makes a student a vast reader, time manager and a problem solver.

·         It encourages self study.

·         Tension of examination is removed.

·         Fear and emotional blockings are reduced in this type of examination.

·         There is less emphasis on cramming than on reasoning.

·         This approach is useful in the measurement of traits other than achievement also.

Disadvantages

·         The students would stop studying and simply copy from the open book provided at the examination hall.

·         It would be really tough to control the secret discussions between students who would cheat their way to success.

·         With notes permitted to be brought in, it may be less easy to detect note passing and copying among students.

·         With take home examinations, ensuring that the work is the student’s own may be problematic.

·         Heavy reliance on external resources could hamper problem solving and in some situations may undermine the image of professional competence.

GRADING SYSTEM

Meaning

            A grade is an index of value judgment that signifies an individual’s position in reference to certain norms or criterion. It is a qualitative assessment of achievement of a student. The achievement is defined in the form of numerical or letter grades, each of which denotes a certain level of performance, generally not in absolute terms but in relation to the performance of the whole group.

            As stated above, grading is essentially meant for categorizing students into a few ability groups on the basis of their performance in the examination. There are two approaches to the formation of groups that define the grades (a) on the basis of absolute marks and (b) on the basis of relative marks or rank order of marks.

Its need

·         Examiners by indulging in evaluation rather than measurement distort results by giving more marks.

·         Criteria of evaluation differ from board to board and from university to university.

·         Examiners in different subjects use different ranges. So this system is reliable.

·         Marks awarded by examiners are not scaled properly.

Methods of grading

            Generally of two types of letter grades are assigned, one is to assign A, B, C, D, E and the other consists of assigning O, A, B, C, D representing outstanding, very good, good, poor or very poor level of performances. For assigning such letter grades generally two methods known as direct grading method and statistical grading method are employed.

Direct grading: In this method grades are allotted to questions directly on the basis of their quality. The evaluators categorize the answers of students in five or seven categories, according to the quality of the answer. The procedure is shown as below.

Grade in letters	O	A	B	C	D	E	F
Grade in digits	6	5	4	3	2	1	0
Grade in words	Outstanding	Very Good	Good	Average	Satisfactory	Poor	V. Poor

Statistical grading: In this method, the teachers mark the answer book as usual in terms of numerical scores and then grades are assigned by using certain statistical techniques. Here the scores are converted into grades on the basis of the range of scores.

Grade	Scores
O A B C D E F	Above 91% 81-90% 61-80% 51-60% 41-50% 33-40% Below 33%

Merits

·         Achievement of the examinees in different subjects can be known separately.

·         Errors of measurement are reduced.

·         Achievements of different students may be easily compared.

·         In this system difference in difficulty level of the various subjects is eradicated.

·         Grading system takes the emphasis away from marks.

·         It is much more meaningful and feasible in comparison to marking system.

·         This system is a boon to weak students than bright students.

Limitations

·         There is lack of consensus among the educators in regard to points of the scale.

·         The system is subjective in nature like marking system.

·         It is easy to convert marks into grades but vice-versa is not possible.

·         This system does not suit much in case of internal assessment.

PROGRESS REPORT

            A report card, communicates a student's performance academically. A typical report card uses a grading scale to determine the quality of a student's school work. Report cards are now frequently issued in automated form by computers and may be mailed to parents and students. Traditional school report cards contained a section for teachers to record individual comments about the student's work and behavior. The term "Report card" is used to describe any systematic listing and evaluation of something for information.          

            An assessment that takes place during a project or process, that conveys details such as what sub-goals have been accomplished, what resources have been expended, what problems have been encountered, and whether the project or process is expected to be completed on time and within budget. Progress reports are used by management to determine whether changes are necessary to an ongoing effort.

Report cards have a number of features, including:

·         a chart showing an A to E grading of the student’s progress

·         areas and strategy for improvement

·         details about the level of the student’s effort and their behavior in class

·         details about attendance.

Use of progress report

To students

·         It forms the basis for motivation to students for learning.

·         It helps in improving study habits and correction of errors.

·         It helps in the selection of major and minor courses of study.

To teachers

·         In identifying the topics difficult for most of the students and planning teaching strategies accordingly.

To parents

·         It is a valuable source of information for parents in taking decisions about their child’s future educational or vocational career.

To administrators

·         It is used for ranking, grading, awarding division, determining promotion to higher class in same school and to other institutions.

STUDENT’S PROFILE

            The derived scores provide a means of expressing scores on quite different tests in common units in such a way that they can be directly compared. The set of different test-scores of an individual, expressed in a common unit of measure is called ‘students’ profile’. The student’s performance on different tests can be directly compared. The raw scores of the student indicate that he is better in Science as compared to Maths. But when we compare his percentile scores, his performance in Maths is little better in comparison to Science.

 CUMULATIVE RECORD

Meaning

            A cumulative record is a record of information about an individual over a long period during the course of his study.  It is an account of the child’s history in the schools. It begins as soon as the child enters the school and continues till he leaves the school for further studies. In school, information thus gathered may be passed from teacher to teacher and from school to school.

Murray Thomas – A cumulative record card is a collection of information about a child over a period of time, usually several years.

Need & importance

            Understanding of the individual is the starting point of all kinds of guidance services. Records, particularly the cumulative records go along way in achieving this objective. If they are prepared in a comprehensive manner, they may provide a lot of reliable and valid information about pupils. In brief, importance of such records may be highlighted in the following points –

·         Achievement of pupils may be compared.

·         Curriculum may be revised in accordance with the needs of the pupils.

·         Progress and behavior of the pupil may be interpreted.

·         Teaching methods may be modified through these records.

·         It helps in preserving the results.

·         It helps the teacher to search talented as well as slow learners.

·         It serves as a link between the teacher and the parents.

Characteristics

            Following are the chief characteristics of a CRC –

·         It presents a comprehensive picture of the child’s growth and development.

·         It is flexible in nature.

·         It is really accessible to teachers.

·         In the recording of data every attempt is made to distinguish facts from personal opinions.

·         It enables teachers to think more about what happens to the pupil in all his areas of development.

Criteria of a good CR

            Following are the criteria of a good CRC –

1.      Validity – It must be true, exact and authentic.

2.      Accuracy – The information given in the card should be accurately noted down from the original source.

3.      Objectivity & reliability – Personal opinions and judgments should be avoided.

4.      Usability – The arrangement of data must facilitate ready interpretations.

5.      Comprehensiveness – The information recorded should be comprehensive to give a complete picture of the child.

6.      Economical – The expenditure incurred in preparing such cards should not cost much.

7.      Evaluation – It is thus prepared with care should evaluated from time to time.

Contents of CRC

            Ideally, such cards should contain information about,

1.      Individual’s physical characteristics and health.

2.      Individual’s intelligence, special aptitudes should be mentioned in the CRC.

3.      Individual’s interests, attitudes, values, emotions, conflicts, self-concepts etc. should be mentioned in CRC.

4.      Individual’s social relationship with others, adjustment in society and school should be mentioned in CRC.

5.      Individual’s personality traits such as hard working, honest, tolerant, enduring, helping, motivating etc. should be mentioned in CRC.

6.      Socio-economic status of the parents and significant characteristics of home environment should be mentioned in CRC.

In short, CRC contains the following sections:

1.      Personal Data

2.      Home Environment

3.      Health Record

4.      Psychological Report

5.      Scholastic Achievement.

6.      Participation in Co-Curricular Activities.

7.      Educational and Vocational Plans.

8.      Personality Characteristics.

9.      General Remarks.  

As a general principle any information useful for effective implementation of educational objectives and presentation of a true picture of the pupil, should be included in the records. Using the record for the guidance to pupil, improvement of teaching strategies, and economical use of the available resources in the school and true assessment of pupil should be one major outcome of the records.